This Week In AromatherapyAromatherapy Bloghttp://www.essentialoildatabase.com/aromatherapy-blog/2010-03-06T18:15:15ZSquarespaceSouthern Farms Can Save Peppermint Oilhttp://www.essentialoildatabase.com/aromatherapy-blog/southern-farms-can-save-peppermint-oil.htmlEssential Oil Database2010-02-27T13:26:42Z2010-02-27T13:26:42Zthat means less peppermint oil and potentially higher prices for the supply that is produced.
But if researchers from Mississippi are correct, that state’s cropland may be a viable alternative to croplands that are being lost further north. And with only a few changes made to the way peppermint is harvested, the results may even be better. Mississippi’s milder, southern climate means 2 harvest per year instead of one.
This is good news for all of us who use peppermint oil heavily. In 2008 alone, production of peppermint essential oil—which is largely a U.S. crop—dropped more than 19% and was expected to continue to drop as demand for corn acreage increased. Currently, most of the world’s peppermint oil is produced in the Great Lakes area of the U.S., where it’s commonly classified as in invasive species due to its ability to spread vigorously.
Peppermint is actually a hybrid and produces no seeds. For decades, botanists believed that the best peppermint oil needed long periods of cool weather to maximize its menthol content. However, this 2-year study finds that small changes in the way peppermint is grown and harvested can result in an essential oil that is virtually identical to its northern-grown counterpart.
Source:
Zheljazkova. V., et al. (2010). Peppermint Productivity and Oil Composition as a Function of Nitrogen, Growth Stage, and Harvest Time. Agronomy Journal.
Calamus essential oil is often referred to here in the U.S. as sweet flag and is a well-known wildflower in warm swampy areas around the world. The calamus oil is made by drying then distilling the rhizomes of this decorate little flower.
Today, despite being considered “extremely toxic” if ingested, calamus is widely used to scent cosmetics, toiletries and household cleaners.
Characteristics of Calamus Oil
Calamus oil can range from yellow to pale brown. It has a warm spicy scent with woody undertones.
Traditional Uses for Calamus
In herbal medicine—particularly India’s traditional system of Ayurveda—calamus is used to ease muscle spasms and treat symptoms of epilepsy. Various preparations of calamus root have also been used to treat various infections, stress and digestive complaints.
Serious Medical Studies on Calamus
Calamus and the essential oil made from it have the been the focus of a surprising number of scientific studies. But most of those studies have focused on the use of calamus for commercial, non-medical purposes.
Safety Issues
Animal studies have suggested that calamus—and especially the essential oil made from it—may have carcinogenic actions. No human data on this potential link between calamus oil and human cancer is available but it is for this reason that calamus is almost always listed as “hazardous” or “dangerous” in popular aromatherapy texts.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Klepser, T., et al. (1999). Unsafe and potentially safe herbal therapies.
Wormwood essential oil is, by nearly every popular aromatherapy author, placed on lists of “hazardous” essential oils. And much of wormwood’s reputation is well deserved. Until the early part of the 20th century, wormwood leaves and flowers were used to make an alcoholic spirit called absinthe. But, citing scientific studies on the potential psychoactive compounds in absinthe, most European countries and the United States had banned the sale of this highly popular spirit well before the 1920s.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Today, most popular aromatherapy authors list wormwood as a “toxic” essential oil. Because of this, wormwood is not often used in casual aromatherapy.
Traditional Uses for Wormwood Oil
Wormwood’s Commission E monograph lists the herb, but not the essential oil, as a remedy for loss of appetite, dyspepsia and certain gall bladder issues.
In some areas, wormwood herb was also used at one time to treat certain parasitic infections.
Today, the volatile oil made from the herb is considered toxic and is not generally recommended for use. No surprising, aromatherapy author Salvatore Battaglia assigns no therapeutic actions to wormwood oil.
Serious Medical Studies on Wormwood Oil
In preparation for this article, we could find no medical studies on the potential medical uses for wormwood essential oil.
Safety Issues
Whether wormwood’s thujone content was really responsible for widespread addiction, increased crime and other undesirable behaviors or not is a matter of great debate. What scientists do know is that thujone is a potent chemical capable of causing seizures.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy
Padosch, S., Lachenmeier, D., Kröner, L. (2006). Absinthism: a fictitious 19th century syndrome with present impact.
Botanical Nomenclature: Agathosma betulina, A. crenulata Extraction Method: Distillation
Buchu essential oil is distilled from the leaves of two woody shrubs from South Africa—Agathosma betulina and A. crenulata. Although most Americans have probably never heard of Buchu, it has a long history of use medicinal use in Africa.
Modern European herbalism has also “discovered” buchu. Today, a number of herbal preparations containing this herb are available in various European countries.
Here in the U.S., buchu is used sparingly as a food flavoring.
Characteristics of Buchu Oil
Buchu oil is an essential oil often described with seemingly contradictory terms. Salvatore Battagglia describes buchu oil as “bitter-sweet” and “minty-champhorous”. Often, the faint minty scent is described as similar to that of the more familiar pennyroyal.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Buchu is an essential oil rarely used in aromatherapy and almost never in “casual” aromatherapy. In preparing this article, we could find no popular aromatherapy texts recommending the diffusion of buchu into a room.
Traditional Uses for Buchu
The first recorded use of buchu goes back to 1653 but its use in African folk medicine undoubtedly goes back much farther. The South African National Biodiversity Institute tells us that various buchu preparations have been used to treat colds, fevers, swellings and kidney and urinary tract infections. Topically, infusions of buchu are used to wash wounds, relieve swelling and ease the pain of bruises and sprains.
Serious Medical Studies on Buchu Oil
Although buchu has been the focus of several studies, those studies have focused mainly on the use of herbal preparations and not specifically on the use of the essential oil. Only one major study, a 2001 study from the UK, has looked at the potential medical benefits of buchu oil. Researchers found that at very high “doses”, buchu essential oil demonstrated spasmogenic actions. This study also looked at the potential antimicrobial actions of buchu oil and found only low antibacterial activity against E. coli and other common pathogens.
Safety Issues
Like most other essential oils, buchu has not been extensively studied for either safety or effectiveness. Chemically, it is somewhat similar to pennyroyal—especially in respect to its pulegone content—so it is assumed that its toxicity potential would be similar. Most aromatherapy texts, assuming they mention buchu at all, contraindicate the use of buchu during pregnancy and lactation.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
South African National Biodiversity Institute. (2004). Agathosma Betulina. Retrieved from www.plantzafrica.com on March 4, 2008.
Lis-Balchin, M., et al. (2001). Buchu (Agathosma betulina and A. crenulata, Rutaceae) essential oils: their pharmacological action on guinea-pig ileum and antimicrobial activity on microorganisms.
Yarrow essential oil is distilled from the leaves and flowering tops of Achillea millefolium, a prennenial creeper that now grows wild throughout much of the world.
Its species name, mmillefolium pays homage to its feathered leaves and, according to legend, the name of its genus, Achillea, comes from the mythical soldier Achilles, who, according to the legend, made a wound-healing remedy from the plant and used the ointment to treat battle wounds.
Characteristics of Yarrow Oil
Depending on its azulene content, yarrow essential oil can range from olive-green to dark blue. Yarrow has a strong camphorous scent that mellows into a less-harsh, sweeter scent.
Psychological Aromatherapy
In causal aromatherapy yarrow is used to reopen the flow of Qi and release pent-up emotions. Popular aromatherapists write that yarrow is a good oil to diffuse for people who struggle with unresolved anger, bitterness and disappointment.
Traditional Uses for Yarrow
Over the centuries, various yarrow preparations have been used to stimulate menstruation, address a variety of vaginal irritations and restore hormonal harmony. Yarrow infusions are also considered astringent and antiseptic and are often recommended for a variety of skin conditions, especially inflammatory conditions like acne.
Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following therapeutic actions to yarrow essential oil:
Anti-inflammatory
Astringent
Anti-spasmodic
Carminative & Digestive
Diophoretic
Emmenagogue
Expectorant
Stomachic
Tonic
Serious Medical Studies on Yarrow Oil
A surprising number of scientific studies have been done on yarrow essential oil and its potential health benefits.
Digestive Support
Yarrow has long been considered an appetite stimulator and a 2007 animal study from Scotland seems to support this use. This study looked at the effect of 5 herbs on the digestive systems of young chickens. Young chicks given supplements of yarrow herb and essential oil gained weight more easily and increased their body mass, compared to chicken who ate diets supplemented with other herbs.
Antioxidant Activity
A number of studies have found various species of yarrow to be rich in antioxidants. One of the most recent was a 2003 study published in Journal of Ethnopharmacology which looked specifically at A. millefolium.
Antimicrobial Effects
Yarrow oil is rich in germ-killing compounds like camphor and eucalyptol. In laboratory tests, yarrow oil demonstrates antimicrobial activities against the germs that are responsible for pneumonia, vaginal yeast infections and even the most common cause of food poisoning.
Safety Issues
Most popular aromatherapy texts list yarrow as non-toxic and non-irritating but the sesquiterpenes, which can vary from growing area to growing area may explain why some users experience allergic skin reactions when using yarrow oil in aromatherapy.
Yarrow oil is sometimes listed in popular aromatherapy texts as an emmenagogue. Like most other essential oils, yarrow hasn’t been exhaustively tested for safety during pregnancy and lactation although a 2004 animal study published in Reproductive Toxicology found no link between yarrow exposure and reproductive issues in young rats.
This study seems to support the findings of a 2003 study from Australia which studied the effect of yarrow on pregnant rats. Even at 56 times the human dose, yarrow was not linked to miscarriage or uterine contractions. However, birth weights of the resulting newborns was reduced, leading researchers in this study to contraindicate yarrow for use during pregnancy until further study could be done.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Cross, D., et al. (2007). The effect of herbs and their associated essential oils on performance, dietary digestibility and gut microflora in chickens from 7 to 28 days of age.
Orav, A., et al. (2006). Phytochemical analysis of the essential oil of Achillea millefolium L. from various European Countries.
Dalsenter, P., et al. (2004). Reproductive evaluation of aqueous crude extract of Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae) in Wistar rats.
Boswell-Ruys, C., et al. (2003). Preliminary screening study of reproductive outcomes after exposure to yarrow in the pregnant rat.
Candan, F. (2003). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil and methanol extracts of Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium Afan. (Asteraceae).
Botanical Nomenclature: Thuja occidentalis Extraction Method: Distillation
Thuja essential oil is distilled from the leaves and wood of Thuja occidentalis. Sometimes referred to as cedarleaf, this small evergreen conifer is native to North America but widely cultivated around the world as an ornamental. You probably know it better as Arborvitae.
Characteristics of Thuja Oil
Essential oil made from thuja should be nearly clear with only hints of yellow to it. Thuja oil has a sharp camphorous scent not unlike oils made from other conifers.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Because of its thujone content, which can approach 80%, thuja essential oil is not considered safe for use in aromatherapy. When consumed, thuja oil acts as a neurotoxin.
Traditional Uses for Thuja
Traditionally, thuja infusions have been both as a medicine and as a wash for wounds. There is some evidence that some Native Americans used thuja teas to address gout, headache a variety of infections. As a wash, thuja infusions were used to treat warts, ringworms and rashes.
Serious Medical Studies on Thuja Oil
Various preparations made from, or containing, thuja have been looked at scientifically and a number of these studies have suggested that thuja may have some immune stimulating actions.
Unfortunately, in preparation for this article, we could find no studies specifically looking at thuja oil for any specific medical condition.
However, one study of note found that thuja oil may have potent antibacterial and anti-yeast actions. This 2001 study, which was not performed on humans, found that thuja oil made from a related species, T. plicata, demonstrated anti-microbial actions when tested against some of the most common infections, including Candida albicans.
Safety Issues
Thuja oil contains three ketones known to be toxic to humans. These are thujone, fenchone and camphor. The presence of these chemicals have led to thuja oil being placed on “hazardous” lists of several prominent aromatherapists.
In 2007, a 7-month-old infant was treated for seizures after his parents gave him a homeopathic remedy containing thuja to calm him during his immunizations.
The report of this child’s seizure supports the findings of a 1981 study which also identified thuja and thuja oil as having what that study’s authors called “convulsant properties” and “neurotoxicity”.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2003). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Naser, B., et al. (2005). Thuja occidentalis (Arbor vitae): A Review of its Pharmaceutical, Pharmacological and Clinical Properties.
Johnston, W. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of some Pacific Northwest woods against anaerobic bacteria and yeast.
Stafstorm, C. (2007). Seizures in a 7-month-old child after exposure to the essential plant oil thuja.
Millet, Y., et al. (1981). Toxicity of some essential plant oils. Clinical and experimental study.
Cypress essential oil is a relative newcomer in the aromatherapy industry. To an American, the cypress is an evergreen tree found in the swamplands of the gulf shore area. But most cypress oil is actually produced in France—not the U.S. The essential oil we know as cypress is distilled from the leaves and twigs of an ancient species of tree botanists call Cupressus sempervirens.
Characteristics of Cypress Essential Oil
A good cypress oil should be pale yellow with a balsamic scent. It is somewhat similar to pine or juniper and most definitely “woody”.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Cypress people are strong willed, clear thinkers who make good decisions. In psychological aromatherapy, cypress is said to stimulate the life force, ground you and increase your ability to make decisions.
Traditional Uses for Cypress Oil
The ancient Greeks gave us much information about their use of cypress. The considered the tree a sacred tree and dedicated it to Pluto—this may explain why cypress was so often used in cemetaries. Medically, cypress preparations were used to control bleeding, for bladder infections and to treat hemorrhoids.
Author Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following actions to cypress oil:
Antiseptic
Antispasmodic
Astringent
Deodorant
Diuretic
Hepatic
Stypic
Tonic
Serious Studies on Cypress Oil
Like many essential oils, cypress hasn’t been extensively studied for its potential therapeutic effects on humans. In preparation for this article, we could find no scientific studies specifically dealing with cypress oil’s medicinal benefits.
Safety Issues
Cypress essential has not been extensively studied for safety in humans. Several popular aromatherapy texts list cypress as non-toxic and non-sensitizing but there just isn’t enough good information to recommend cypress at this time.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy
Wormseed essential oil, which is sometimes labeled as chenopodium oil, is distilled from a large annual weed known botanically as Chenopodium ambrosioides. Also known as epazote—especially in Central and South America—wormseed is considered an invasive weed throughout much of its native area.
Its name, wormseed, comes from the fact that it was once extensively used as a folk remedy for intestinal parasites.
Characteristics of Wormseed Oil
Wormseed oil should be pale yellow with a strong scent that is generally described as “unpleasant”, “skunky” and “overpowering”. In fact, its Mexican folk name, epazote, comes from two words which, when combined, roughly translate to “bad smelling animal”.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Because of its overpowering and unpleasant smell, wormseed essential oil is never used in “casual” aromatherapy. Wormseed oil is also toxic, leading many professional aromatherapists to place it on their lists of “hazardous” essential oils.
Traditional Uses for Wormseed
Various preparations of wormseed have been used, probably for centuries, to address a number of ailments but its most documented use was as a anti-parasitic. Animal research at Cornell University supports this traditional herbal use—although researchers are working with livestock and do not recommend wormseed’s use for humans.
Serious Medical Studies on Wormseed Oil
Leishmania
Wormseed is best known as an anti-parasitic and a series of studies from Cuba in 2007 focused on its use against parasitic protozoa in the Leishmania genus. This microbe, which is thought to affect millions of people in more than 80 countries is currently treated only through chemotherapy. But essential oil of wormseed may prove to be a viable treatment alternative.
Ascariasis
Caused by a type of roundworm, ascarious affects millions of people around the world and is especially prevalent in warmer areas of the world. A 1985 of Mayan farmers in Mexico found that decoctions of wormseed didn’t perform quite as well as folk stories would suggest but that wormseed essential oil (and related herbal preparations) could potentially benefit many people affected by this extremely common parasite.
Safety Issues
Like many essential oils, wormseed has only recently been analyzed for potential toxicity, despite centuries of use as a folk medicine. A 2006 study found both cytotoxic and genotoxic actions when wormseed’s effect on human lymphocyte cells was studied.
Studies like this one are probably the reason that most aromatherapy experts, assuming they address wormseed oil at all, place it on their “hazardous oils” lists.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Author Unknown. (2001). Cornell University, Department of Animal Science. Retrieved from www.nsci.cornell.edu/plants/medicinal/epazote.html on March 5, 2008.
Monzote, L., et al. (2007). Combined effect of the essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides and antileishmanial drugs on promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis.
Monzote, L., et al. (2007). In vitro activity of an essential oil against Leishmania donovani.
Gadano, A., et al. (2006). Argentine folk medicine: genotoxic effects of Chenopodiaceae family.Monzonte, L., et al. (2007). Activity, toxicity and analysis of resistance of essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides after intraperitoneal, oral and intralesional administration in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania amazonensis: a preliminary study.
Kliks, M. (1985). Studies on the traditional herbal anthelmintic Chenopodium ambrosioides L.: ethnopharmacological evaluation and clinical field trials.
Botanical Nomenclature: Peumus boldus Extraction Method: Distillation
Boldo essential oil is distilled from the leaves of Peumus boldus, a small tree that grows wild in parts of South America. Indigenous people in the Andes Mountains have used boldo medicinally for years.
Characteristics of Boldo Oil
Boldo oil is yellow in color and, like most other distilled oils, thin. It has a strong spicy scent. George Burdock, of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients, describes the scent has “similar to melissa”.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Though various preparations of boldo have been used or centuries, today’s aromatherapists agree that essential oil of boldo should not be used in aromatherapy, due to its ascaridole content.
Traditional Uses for Boldo Oil
Though there’s little evidence that an essential oil of boldo was ever used medicinally, various cultures in its native South America used other boldo preprations (especially infusions) for infections, arthritis and even liver and gall bladder disorders.
Perhaps boldo was best-known as a treatment for gonorrhoea. It was extensively used for inflammation of the genitals and urinary tract.
Serious Medical Studies on Boldo Oil
In preparation for this article, we could find no scientific studies on the use of boldo oil for any medical condition.
Safety Issues
Boldo is not considered safe for aromatherapy—at least by most popular aromatherapy authors—mainly due to its ascaridole content. Like most other essential oils, boldo hasn’t been exhaustively studied.
References:
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Burdock, G. (2004). Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients.
Vogel, H. (1999). Studies of Genetic Variation of Essential Oil and Alkaloid Content in Boldo (Peumus boldus).
Vetiver essential oil is a bit unusual in aromatherapy in that it’s made from the roots of a grass. Distilled from the rhizomes of Vetiveria zizanoides, vetiver oil is a very important “fixative” in many popular aromatherapy blends and natural perfumes.
In India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia, where vetiver grows wild, the long, thin roots are woven into window screens and floor mats that gently scent the home. Tea made from vetiver is used to treat fever, headache, heat stroke and other “hot” ailments.
But vetiver is best-known in the rest of the world for is ability to “fix” a perfume blend.
Characteristics of Vetiver Essential Oil
Vetiver is a thick, heavy essential oil with a definite “organic” or “earthy” smell. It’s sometimes described as smelling a bit like fresh garden soil. Vetiver oil made from very young rootlets instead of mature rhizomes has a sweet herbaceous scent similar to the smell of steamed asparagus.
Psychological Aromatherapy
Vetiver is often classified as a “cool” oil. It’s considered an uplifting, refreshing scent that supports feminine energies. Gabriel Mojay recommend vetiver for poor appetite, excessive weight loss and anemia.
Traditional Uses for Vetiver
In it native regions, vetiver is used both to sedate and stimulate. Various preparations of vetiver herb are also used to treat headache, fever and inflammatory conditions like arthritis can dermatitis.
Aromatherapy expert Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following therapeutic actions to essential oil of vetiver:
Antiseptic
Nervine & Sedative
Rubefacient
General Tonic
Serious Medical Studies on Vetiver Essential Oil
Oddly, much of the recent research into vetiver has focused not on the essential oil but on the plant itself—especially as a “clean-up” plant in contaminated soils. In a handful of tests, vetiver has demonstrated the ability to reduce pollution levels in soil.
Antioxidant Actions
Like most other essential oils, vetiver has not been extensively studied for medicinal purposes. But a 2005 study evaluating the antioxidant properties of vetiver oil found the essential oil an effective antioxidant in non-human studies.
Safety Issues
Like most other essential oils, vetiver has not been exhaustively studied for safety. Generally it is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing.
References:
Mojay, G. (1996). Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit.
Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Brandt, R., et al. (2006). Potential of vetiver (vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash) for phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soils in Venezuela.
Kim, H., et al. (2005). Evaluation of antioxidant activity of vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides L.) oil and identification of its antioxidant constituents.