Essential Oil Database

Botanical Nomenclature: Citrus bergamia
Extraction Method: Cold Pressing

Bergamot essential oil, like all other citrus oils, is too delicate to be distilled. The essential oil of this small fruit is, instead, forced out of the peel through a mechanical procedure aromatherapists call “cold pressing”. In many ways, citrus oils like bergamot are the only “true” essential oils because they contain no solvent residues and haven’t been exposed the potentially damaging heat used in distillation.

Native to a small area of southern Italy, the tree that gives us bergamot is now grown throughout the Mediterranean. The fruit that this small tree produces is too bitter for human consumption but the essential oils contained in the fruit’s peel is one of the most important oils in all of aromatherapy.

Characteristics of Bergamot Oil

Bergamot essential oil has a distinctive citrus scent that’s similar to orange oil but less sweet and with hints of grassy undertones. A good bergamot should be lightly colored and may range from very light green to yellow.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Like other citrus oils, bergamot is regarded as an anti-depressant, uplifting and happy oil. Sometimes called the “grown-up’s orange” bergamot is similar to orange oil but smells far less sweet.

Traditional Uses for Bergamot Oil

Traditionally, bergamot’s most popular use was as a flavoring for Earl Grey tea. But bergamot is believed to have therapeutic properties, too. Essential oil expert Salvatore Battaglia tells us that bergamot oil is:

• Analgesic
• Antidepressant
• Anti-Microbial
• Carminative
• Digestive
• Sedative
• Febrifuge
• Nervine
• Stomachic
• Tonic

Scientific Studies on Bergamot Oil

Fungal Infections

A number of in vitro studies have found bergamot essential oil effective against many of the most common species of dermatophytes. One of the most notable studies was a 2007 Italian study that ultimately suggested that bergamot oil may be an effective topical treatment for Candida and other common nail and skin infections.

Antibacterial Properties

Bergamot has long been known to have anti-microbial properties. A 2006 study of essential oil vapors confirmed this when it found bergamot essential oil the most effective citrus oil tested against common species of bacteria, including E. coli, Campylobacter and Listeria.

Safety Issues

Like many other citrus oils, bergamot is a phototoxic oil. The International Fragrance Research Association advises that bergamot not exceed 0.04% of any formula that is allowed to stay on the skin.

In a 2001 study from Austria, researchers cite two separate instances in which bergamot oil caused phototoxic and melanogenic reactions. One patient reported no prior direct contact with any essential oil but experienced a reaction after diffusing bergamot oil in a sauna then using a tanning bed.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.

Sanguinetti, M., et al. (2007). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes.

Fisher, K., et al. (2007). The effect of lemon, orange and bergamot essential oils and their components on the survival of Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro and in food systems.

Kaddu, S., et al. (2001). Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil.

Botanical Nomenclature: Lavandula angustifolia
Extraction Method: Distillation

Ah, lavender essential oil. In many ways, there would be no aromatherapy without lavender. Not only is it by far the most popular of all the essential oils; it’s also the first to be documented therapeutically. You see, back in the late 1920s, a French chemist named Rene Gattefosse coined the phrase “aromatherapy” after using lavender to heal a serious burn.

In a story that’s been told and re-told throughout the decades, Gattefosse burned his hand during a laboratory experiment. Nearly hysterical with pain, he plunged his wounded fist into the nearest open container of liquid—a vat of pure lavender oil. As the legend goes, Gattefosse was so impressed with the immediate pain relief (and the eventual complete healing of such a serious burn) that he devoted the rest of his life to the study of volatile botanical oils.

But lavender oil is more than just aromatherapy’s firstborn. It’s also immensely popular in the perfume, food and home fragrance industries. Today lavender flavors pastries, scents cleaning products and is the most popular scent in “natural” cosmetics and toiletries.

The genus Lavandula is made up of at least 30 species but it’s oil distilled from the leaves and flowers of Lavandula angustifolia that aromatherapists considered the one true lavender. This species was previously known as L. officinalis and it’s still sold under that label occasionally.

Characteristics of Lavender Oil

True lavender oils should come only from L. angustifolia but because lavender essential oil is often distilled from any of the other species—and is sometimes a blend of several species—lavender oil will vary somewhat in its scent. But all lavender should have a herbaceous and almost medicinal scent with balsamic undertones and the faintest hints of floral. Any lavender oil should be thin and nearly colorless.

Unfortunately, its popularity makes lavender one of the most adulterated oils in the world. Lavender can be adulterated with other species of lavender, related species and even chemical “duplicates”. To get true, pure lavender oil, buy only from a reputable dealer and purchase only those brands you know you can trust.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Lavender is best known for its alleged relaxing and calming actions. It’s widely used in de-stressing blends for this reason.

Lavender is also considered a “balanced” or “gender neutral” oil and appeals equally well to both men and women. Lavender people are considered well-adjusted people who are in tune with themselves and considered and patient with others.

Traditional Uses for Lavender Essential Oil

Lavender is sometimes called the “mother” of essential oils and has been used over the years for a variety of reasons. It’s a popular oil to have on hand during childbirth and was once used extensively for reproductive health issues.

Lavender’s antimicrobial properties also make it a popular oil for sickrooms. Some stories claim that towns that grew lavender commercially during outbreaks of the plague were spared the worst of the infections. True or not, lavender is widely considered in aromatherapy to be a first-line oil during cold and flu season.

Lavender is also highly prized for its alleged healing properties. It’s a popular oil to dab onto minor cuts, scrapes, bug bites and minor burns. There is some evidence that lavender was once used as a disinfectant when battlefield supplies of medicinal disinfectants ran out.

Author and aromatherapy expert Salvatore Battaglia assigns these therapeutic actions to lavender essential oil:

• Analgesic
• Anticonvulsive & Antispasmodic
• Antidepressant
• Antispasmodic
• Antimicrobial
• Carminative
• Decongestant
• Deodorant
• Diuretic
• Emmenagogue
• Hypotensive
• Nervine
• Sedative

Serious Medical Studies on Lavender Oil

Given lavender’s incredible popularity in aromatherapy, it’s surprising to learn that only a few dozen studies on L. angustifolia have been published in medical journals.

Behavioral Problems

One of the problems facing caregivers of dementia patients is agitation and, unfortunately, the risks and side effects of mainstream pharmaceuticals often outweigh the potential benefits. But a 2007 Chinese study published in the International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that lavender essential oil, diffused into the air, effectively calmed elderly dementia patients while presenting no documented side effects.

Fungal Infections

Lavender has long been prized for its believed antimicrobial actions. A 2005 Italian study is just one of several that found lavender oil effective against the common fungal infection Candida albicans.

Stress

Aromatherapy most often uses lavender for stress reduction and a number of studies have focused on the calming effects of the oil. A 2007 study on gerbils found that exposure to the scent of lavender essential oil reduced noticeable stress responses in laboratory animals during maze tests.

Safety Issues

Most of the popular aromatherapy books rave about lavender’s safety and mildness. Unfortunately, this exuberance seems to be a bit premature. Contrary to widely held beliefs, allergies to lavender do occur—and just among professionals who work with the oils, as some aromatherapy authors have claimed.

There is also some evidence that the linalool content of lavender oil may be cytotoxic to human skin cells. In laboratory tests concentrations of 0.25% proved cytotoxic to all cell types tested in this experiment.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

Lin, P., et al. (2007). Efficacy of aromatherapy (Lavandula angustifolia) as an intervention for agitated behaviours in Chinese older persons with dementia: a cross-over randomized trial.

Bradley, B., et al. (2007). Anxiolytic effects of Lavandula angustifolia odour on the Mongolian gerbil elevated plus maze.

D’Auria, F., et al. (2005). Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form.

Prashar, A. (2004). Cytotoxicity of lavender oil and its major components to human skin cells.

Botanical Nomenclature: Piper nigrum
Extraction Method: Distillation

Black pepper essential oil may not sound like a promising new tool in the aromatherapist’s arsenal but this unfamiliar essence may well be one of the most promising essential oils around.

Native to Indonesia and southern India, the plant that gives us black pepper has been cultivated by humans for more than 2,000 years. This perennial flowering vine produces small fruits that, when allowed to ripen, produce the spice we call white pepper. But if those fruits are picked before they’re allowed to fully mature, the resulting pepper is known as black pepper. And it’s from those unripe fruits, with their berries still intact, that essential oil producers distill their precious essential oil.

Characteristics of Black Pepper Oil

Depending upon the ripeness of the fruits used to make it, black pepper oil will range from colorless to pale green. All black pepper should have a warm, spicy wood scent with a definite “pepper” smell.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Aromatherapy regards black pepper oil as “warming” and “tonifying”. It is often diffused to dispel melancholy and to strengthen reserve. Spiritual aromatherapists tell us that people who feel especially drawn to black pepper are responsible but often self-righteous people with strong leadership skills and a “can-do” attitude.

Traditional Uses for Black Pepper Oil

Traditionally, pepper has been used mainly to stimulate organs like the spleen. Author Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following actions to the essential oil:

• Analgesic
• Antiseptic
• Antispasmodic
• Carminative
• Diaphoretic
• Diuretic
• Laxative
• Tonic
• Stomachic

Scientific Studies on Black Pepper Essential Oil

As is the case with other culinary spices, much of the research on black pepper has focused on the ground spice and not on the essential oil. While laboratory tests have shown that black pepper may have anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and antioxidant activities, only one peer-reviewed human study on the oil itself was found in the course of our investigation of this oil.

Effect on the Sympathetic Nervous System

Your sympathetic nervous system, or SNS, is the branch of your autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight-or-flight response during times of stress. A 2002 Japanese study found that inhalation of black pepper oil caused a 1.7 fold increase in hormones associated with the fight-or-flight response. Exactly how this information will prove useful has yet to be determined.

Safety Issues

Like many essential oils, black pepper has not been exhaustively studied for side effects. Most aromatherapy texts list black pepper oil as non-irritating and non-sensitizing but, again, this has not been proven scientifically.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.

Haze, S., et al. (2002). Effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity in normal adults.

Botanical Nomenclature: Citrus paradisi, C. racemosa
Extraction Method: Cold pressing

Grapefruit essential oil is made from the only variety of citrus that’s native to the Americas. It’s thought that today’s grapefruit trees are the result of a cross between other citrus species brought to the West Indies by Spanish explorers in the 1600s.

Regardless of grapefruit’s exact origins, there’s no doubt that this large and sometimes bitter fruit is immensely important to a number of industries. While it’s only recently been “discovered” by aromatherapy, grapefruit has long been used to flavor foods and scent toiletries like soaps, shampoos and lotions.

Like all other citrus fruits, grapefruit essential oil is expeller pressed from the rinds of its ripe fruit. Both “white” grapefruit and “red” or “ruby” grapefruit can be used to make essential oil. The only significant difference is a slightly higher aldehyde in the “white” varieties.

In shopping for grapefruit oil, you may find a number of species represented as “grapefruit”. Perhaps the most common oil is C. paradisi. It’s believed to be a hybrid of C. maxima and C. sinensis.

Characteristics of Grapefruit Oil

Grapefruit essential oil is a thin, yellow or yellow-green oil with a definite “citrus” scent. It should be less sweet than sweet orange but less harsh than bergamot. It will feel a bit “wet” to the nose and a tad drier than orange.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Like other citrus oils, grapefruit appeals to people who are warm, happy and generally optimistic. Grapefruit may feel a bit more sophisticated than other citrus oils and is a good oil for people who feel stressed or tense.

Grapefruit can be a fantastic substitute for heavier, sweeter citrus oils. Lisa Barger calls it “the grown-up’s citrus”.

Traditional Uses for Grapefruit Oil

Generally, grapefruit oil is considered more similar to lemon than other citrus oils. Author Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following therapeutic actions to grapefruit:

• Antidepressant
• Antiseptic
• Depurative
• Diuretic
• Disinfectant
• Stimulant

Scientific Studies on Grapefruit Oil

Weight Loss

As surprising as it seems, grapefruit essential oil, diffused into the air, may help some people lose weight. A 2005 Japanese study on rats found that exposure to the scent of grapefruit essential oil directly affected the adrenal glands and, in the words of researchers, “inhibited the parasympathetic gastric nerve”.

This study found that a 15-minute exposure to the scent of grapefruit essential oil 3 times a week effectively reduced food intake—apparently by directly suppressing the appetite. To date, no human studies have been published but the results seem very promising.

Cancer

The various citrus oils have long been associated with detoxification and a 2003 suggests that the limonene content of citrus oils may also have strong anti-cancer properties. This study found that limonene and other chemical components of citrus oils induced apoptosis, or cell death, when put into direct contact with tumor cells. How this may someday benefit human cancer patients has yet to be determined.

Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria

As drug-resistant “super bugs” become more and more common, science is increasingly looking to botanical medicine for help. A 2004 study from the UK suggests that adding grapefruit essential oil to the standard antibiotic methicillin increases the effectiveness of the drug even on strains of Staph that are resistant to the drug.

Safety Issues

Grapefruit is know to interact with or influence the metabolism of a number of medications. To date, all studies on grapefruit’s potential drug interactions has focused on ingested grapefruit and not on the potential effects of inhaling the vapor of the essential oils. How, or even if, the casual use of grapefruit essential oil in aromatherapy could cause drug interactions is unknown at this time.

In popular aromatherapy texts, grapefruit oil is considered non-toxic and non-sensitizing. And unlike other citrus oils, grapefruit shows very little potential for phototoxicity.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

Stump, A., et al. (2006). Management of Grapefruit-Drug Interactions.

Shen, J., et al. (2005). Olfactory stimulation with scent of grapefruit oil affects autonomic nerves, lipolysis and appetite in rats.

Hata, T., et al. (2003). Induction of apoptosis by Citrus paradisi essential oil in human leukemic (HL-60) cells.

Abulrob, A., et al. (2004). Identification and biological evaluation of grapefruit oil components as potential novel efflux pump modulators in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacterial strains.